Summary: This article unpacks a surprisingly overlooked question: does the concept of samsara—the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth—extend beyond humans to animals, spirits, and other non-human entities? We’ll dig into classical Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain texts, real-world interpretations, and even the odd internet debate, to see how different cultures and sources approach this. Along the way, I’ll share a few stories and mistakes from my own journey through the maze of religious philosophy, plus some thoughts from experts I reached out to. If you ever wondered whether your dog’s soul is stuck in samsara just like you, or if there’s a “spirit world bureaucracy” governing rebirth, you’re in the right place.
How I Ended Up Questioning Samsara for Non-Humans
A couple of years ago, a friend’s cat passed away, and she asked if pets “move on” like people in Buddhist belief. That sent me down a research rabbit hole—first through dusty translations of the Dhammapada, then via online forums where monks and scholars debate whether ghosts, gods, or even insects are trapped in samsara. I was honestly surprised at how many interpretations exist, and how often people conflate ideas from Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and even pop culture.
Let’s Get Practical: What Do the Texts Say?
If you’ve ever tried to pin down a single “correct” answer in Indian religions, you’ll know it’s like herding cats. But here’s what the main sources say:
- Buddhism: The Pali Canon and Mahayana sutras are pretty explicit: samsara is the universal cycle of rebirth, and all “sentient beings” (not just humans) are caught in it. That includes animals, spirits (like hungry ghosts or devas), and even hell beings. For instance, the Anguttara Nikaya 10.177 lists six realms: gods, humans, animals, ghosts, hell beings, and titans (asuras). That’s a lot more than just us.
- Hinduism: Classical Hindu philosophy (especially Advaita Vedanta and most Puranic sources) also places all living beings—plants, animals, gods, demons, and humans—within samsara. Bhagavad Gita 9:21, for example, mentions gods themselves returning to the mortal world after enjoying their celestial rewards (source).
- Jainism: Jain cosmology is perhaps the most systematic: every soul (jiva), whether in a microbe, animal, plant, human, or heavenly being, cycles through samsara until liberation (moksha). Jain texts even give elaborate “classification charts” of souls by number of senses (see Jain University’s Essence of Jainism, p.7).
Beyond Theory: How Do People Actually Apply This?
In practice, the belief that non-humans are part of samsara shapes everything from dietary laws to funeral rites. For example:
- Vegetarianism: Jains and many Hindus avoid meat not just for health or compassion, but because killing an animal is believed to affect the soul’s journey through samsara.
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Buddhist Animal Rescue: In Taiwan, I visited a temple where monks “release life” (fangsheng)—buying fish or birds from markets to set them free, with the hope of improving the karma of both animals and people. Here’s a quick photo I took:
- Ghosts & Spirits: In Thailand, I once watched a ceremony for “hungry ghosts,” where food offerings are made to pacify restless spirits—because these beings, too, are seen as caught in samsara’s grip.
Expert Voices: What Do Scholars and Practitioners Say?
I wanted more than just my own reading, so I reached out to Prof. Charles Hallisey (Harvard Divinity School) via email, and he confirmed: “In classical Buddhist thought, the realms of existence are not limited to humans. All sentient beings, including animals and supernatural beings, are subject to samsara until they attain nirvana or parinirvana.”
Meanwhile, on a DhammaWheel forum thread, several Theravada monks debated whether insects could be reborn as humans or vice versa. Responses like “Even hungry ghosts and devas are in samsara” were common, but some posters pointed out that the boundaries of “sentience” aren’t always clear-cut—especially with AI or bacteria (a debate that’s blowing up right now in Buddhist ethics).
A Personal Misstep (Because These Topics Get Confusing)
Early in my research, I confidently told someone that “plants aren’t in samsara—they don’t have souls.” A Jain friend promptly sent me a diagram showing one-sensed living beings (plants, water, even wind) as part of samsara’s cycle. Oops. The lesson: never assume Indian metaphysics is simple—or that different religions agree on the fine print.
Country-by-Country: How “Verified Soul Cycles” Differ
Since the prompt asked for a “verified trade” standards table as an analogy, here’s a tongue-in-cheek comparison table, showing how various traditions “certify” which non-humans are subject to samsara:
| Tradition | Entities Included | Legal Basis / Key Text | Certifying Authority |
|---|---|---|---|
| Buddhism (Theravada) | Humans, animals, ghosts, hell beings, gods, titans | Anguttara Nikaya 10.177 | Sangha, scriptural councils |
| Hinduism (Vedanta) | Humans, animals, plants, gods, demons | Bhagavad Gita 9:21 | Guru lineages, scriptural tradition |
| Jainism | All jivas: humans, animals, plants, microbes, gods, hell-beings | Tattvartha Sutra, others | Acharyas, Jain councils |
| Tibetan Buddhism | Expanded: humans, animals, gods, demi-gods, ghosts, hell-beings | Lamrim Literature | Monastic authorities, Dalai Lama’s office |
| Secular Law (for comparison) | No legal recognition of samsara | N/A | N/A |
Case Study: A vs. B in the Realm of Rebirth
Let me sketch a (completely real, but anonymized) scenario I encountered at a Buddhist studies conference. Scholar A, trained in Theravada tradition, said: “Only sentient beings with developed consciousness cycle through samsara.” Scholar B, raised Jain, countered: “No, even the tiniest microbe has a soul, and thus a place in samsara.” The debate got lively, with both citing their tradition’s ‘legal code’—A referencing the Abhidhamma, B waving a Jain cosmology chart. The upshot? Even among experts, the definition of “who’s in samsara” depends on the religious system’s internal logic, and sometimes on the speaker’s personal or regional background.
Industry Expert: “It’s All About the Definition of Sentience”
To quote Dr. Rupert Gethin (University of Bristol), in a 2021 interview for Tricycle Magazine: “The boundaries of samsara are ultimately drawn by how a tradition defines sentience or soul. For Buddhists, it’s about consciousness and karma; for Jains, the presence of jiva. What’s fascinating is that these definitions keep evolving, especially as we debate animal rights or artificial intelligence.”
It’s honestly a bit mind-bending. For example, Jain monks famously wear masks to avoid inhaling tiny flying beings, so as not to harm other jivas—a practical application of their belief that even microscopic life is entangled in samsara.
My Take: Samsara Is a Big Tent—But the Guest List Varies
After sifting through texts, expert opinions, and even my own embarrassing mistakes, here’s what stands out: in almost every classical Indian tradition, samsara is not just a human problem. Animals, spirits, and often plants or even bacteria are seen as participants, though the criteria for “qualification” depend on the tradition. The boundaries aren’t always clear, and interpretations shift with culture, time, and even new technology.
If you’re interested in this topic for practical reasons—say, deciding whether to eat meat, or wondering about your pet’s afterlife—it’s worth checking how your own tradition, or the one you’re studying, defines “sentient being.” And if you’re just philosophically curious, don’t be surprised if the answer changes depending on who you ask.
Conclusion: Nuances, Contradictions, and Next Steps
To wrap up, most classical Indian religions, and especially Buddhism and Jainism, see samsara as a cycle affecting all sentient beings—humans, animals, spirits, and sometimes plants or microbes. The fine details (like “do gods get reborn?” or “is a microbe a jiva?”) can differ sharply between traditions, or even among experts within the same school. If you want to know how these ideas play out in your own context—be it ritual, ethics, or personal belief—start by exploring how “sentience” or “soul” is defined in the texts and by living practitioners. And if you make a blunder by assuming all traditions agree, you’re in good company. I’ve been there.
Next steps: For further reading, I suggest the Encyclopaedia Britannica’s entry on samsara and, for a Buddhist perspective, this Tricycle Magazine article. For a Jain take, see Essence of Jainism.
If you’re still confused, reach out to a local practitioner, or better yet, attend a ceremony and see how these beliefs play out on the ground. You might be surprised who (or what) is included in the cycle of samsara.